Several terns, most noddies, and a few gulls are pelagic.\u00a0 Many of these are rarely seen except during the breeding season, and spend the bulk of their lives in remote seas as yet unknown.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t

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Taxonomy<\/strong><\/span><\/p>

As currently understood the Laridae<\/em> comprises five subfamilies:<\/p>

Rhynchopinae:<\/span> Skimmers (3 species)<\/p>

Gyginae:<\/span> Fairy-terns (3 species)<\/p>

Sterninae:<\/span> Terns (41 to 44 species)<\/p>

Anouinae:<\/span> Noddies (5 to 8 species)<\/p>

Larinae:<\/span> Gulls (57 to 70 species)<\/p>

The skimmers were traditionally classified as a separate family, but a series of genetic studies suggest that they are more closely related to terns, and that the noddies (which were formerly considered to be a subgroup of terns) are more closely related to the gulls.<\/p>

Species-level classification is plagued by several sets of closely related forms that occur in different regions and rarely come into contact with one another.\u00a0 A few such cases of speciation in progress are probably unresolvable and require an arbitrary determination.<\/p>

A prime example is the case of Cabot\u2019s Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus acuflavidus<\/em>) and \u201cCayenne Tern\u201d <\/strong>(eurygnathus<\/em>), which are North and South American counterparts that differ in bill color and were traditionally considered separate species\u2014or, more accurately, Cabot\u2019s was classified as a subspecies of the Old World Sandwich Tern <\/strong>(sandvicensis<\/em>), based on their distinctive yellow-tipped black bills, and the all-yellow-billed Cayenne was regarded as a different species.\u00a0 In recent decades, however, Cayenne and Cabot\u2019s have been found hybridizing in the West Indies, which has shifted the consensus to regard them as a single species.\u00a0 At the same time, multiple lines of evidence have developed to distinguish Cabot\u2019s from Sandwich sufficiently to persuade most authorities that they are separate species.<\/p>

The general trend in the 2000s among larid taxonomists has been to acknowledge more diversity through the recognition of more forms as separate species.\u00a0 One of the best-known cases of ambiguous species delineation in the bird world is the Herring Gull complex, in which several forms are known to interbreed occasionally\u2014but if all the interbreeding forms were considered conspecific the resulting agglomeration would include forms that occur together without interbreeding.\u00a0 What was once known as the Herring Gull has been reclassified as seven species: European Herring, Armenian, Yellow-legged, Caspian, American Herring, Vega, and Mongolian.\u00a0 The total rises to nine with the addition of two that were sometimes lumped in: Lesser Black-backed and Heuglin\u2019s.<\/p>

Conversely, some different-looking forms have been found to interbreed so freely that ornithologists have determined that they must be considered a single, highly variable species.\u00a0 For example, the \u201cIceland Gull\u201d (glaucoides<\/em>) and \u201cThayer\u2019s Gull\u201d (thayeri<\/em>) differ outwardly and were traditionally considered separate species\u2014and for many decades \u201cThayer\u2019s\u201d was classified as a subspecies of Herring Gull (which increases the Herring Gull complex to ten recognized species).\u00a0 An intermediate form, \u201cKumlien\u2019s Gull\u201d (kumlieni<\/em>), interbreeds freely with both \u201cIceland\u201d and \u201cThayer\u2019s\u201d, resulting in a spectrum of plumages.\u00a0 In 2018, the relevant taxonomic authorities unanimously agreed to reclassify the three forms as a single species, the Iceland Gull <\/strong>(Larus glaucoides<\/em>).<\/p>

The resulting count rests somewhere in the span of 109 to 129 species.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t

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Black Skimmer<\/strong> (Rynchops niger<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
African Skimmer<\/strong> (Rynchops flavirostris<\/em>)<\/p>
Indian Skimmer<\/strong> (Rynchops albicollis<\/em>)<\/p>
Common Fairy-Tern<\/strong> (Gygis candida<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Atlantic Fairy-Tern<\/strong> (Gygis alba<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Little Fairy-Tern<\/strong> (Gygis microrhyncha<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Sooty Tern <\/strong>(Onychoprion fuscatus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Gray-backed Tern <\/strong>(Onychoprion lunatus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Bridled Tern <\/strong>(Onychoprion anaethetus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Aleutian Tern <\/strong>(Onychoprion aleuticus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Little Tern <\/strong>(Sternula albifrons<\/em>)<\/p>
Least Tern <\/strong>(Sternula antillarum<\/em>)<\/p>
Yellow-billed Tern <\/strong>(Sternula superciliaris<\/em>)<\/p>
Australian Fairy Tern <\/strong>(Sternula nereis<\/em>)<\/p>
Peruvian Tern <\/strong>(Sternula lorata<\/em>)<\/p>
Saunders\u2019s Tern <\/strong>(Sternula saundersi<\/em>)<\/p>
Damara Tern <\/strong>(Sternula balaenarum<\/em>)<\/p>
Large-billed Tern <\/strong>(Phaetusa simplex<\/em>)<\/p>
Gull-billed Tern <\/strong>(Gelochelidon nilotica<\/em>)<\/p>
Australian Tern <\/strong>(Gelochelidon macrotarsa<\/em>)<\/p>
Caspian Tern <\/strong>(Hydroprogne caspia<\/em>)<\/p>
Inca Tern <\/strong>(Larosterna inca<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Black Tern <\/strong>(Chlidonias niger<\/em>)<\/p>
White-winged Tern <\/strong>(Chlidonias leucopterus<\/em>)<\/p>
Whiskered Tern <\/strong>(Chlidonias hybrida<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-fronted Tern <\/strong>(Chlidonias albostriatus<\/em>)<\/p>
American Royal Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus maximus<\/em>)<\/p>
African Royal Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus albididorsalis<\/em>)<\/p>
Greater Crested Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus bergii<\/em>)<\/p>
Sandwich Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus sandvicensis<\/em>)<\/p>
Cabot\u2019s Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus acuflavidus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cCabot\u2019s Tern\u201d <\/strong>(T. a. acuflavidus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cCayenne Tern\u201d <\/strong>(T. a. eurygnathus<\/em>)<\/p>
Elegant Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus elegans<\/em>)<\/p>
Lesser Crested Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus bengalensis<\/em>)<\/p>
Chinese Crested Tern <\/strong>(Thalasseus bernsteini<\/em>)<\/p>
Roseate Tern <\/strong>(Sterna dougallii<\/em>)<\/p>
White-fronted Tern <\/strong>(Sterna striata<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-naped Tern <\/strong>(Sterna sumatrana<\/em>)<\/p>
South American Tern <\/strong>(Sterna hirundinacea<\/em>)<\/p>
Common Tern <\/strong>(Sterna hirundo<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cCommon Tern\u201d <\/strong>(S. h. hirundo<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cSiberian Tern\u201d <\/strong>(S. h. longipennis<\/em>)<\/p>
Antarctic Tern <\/strong>(Sterna vittata<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cAntarctic Tern\u201d <\/strong>(S. v. vittata<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cSouth Georgia Tern\u201d <\/strong>(S. v. georgiae<\/em>)<\/p>
Arctic Tern <\/strong>(Sterna paradisaea<\/em>)<\/p>
Forster\u2019s Tern <\/strong>(Sterna forsteri<\/em>)<\/p>
Snowy-crowned Tern <\/strong>(Sterna trudeaui<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-bellied Tern <\/strong>(Sterna acuticauda<\/em>)<\/p>
River Tern <\/strong>(Sterna aurantia<\/em>)<\/p>
White-cheeked Tern <\/strong>(Sterna repressa<\/em>)<\/p>
Kerguelen Tern <\/strong>(Sterna virgata<\/em>)<\/p>
Brown Noddy<\/strong> (Anous stolidus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
\u201cBrown Noddy\u201d<\/strong> (A. s. stolidus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
\u201cGal\u00e1pagos Noddy\u201d<\/strong> (A. s. galapagensis<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Lesser Noddy<\/strong> (Anous tenuirostris<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Black Noddy<\/strong> (Anous minutus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
\u201cAtlantic Black Noddy\u201d<\/strong> (A. m. americanus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
\u201cPacific Black Noddy\u201d<\/strong> (A. m. minutus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
\u201cHawaiian Noddy\u201d<\/strong> (A. m. melanogenys<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Blue Noddy<\/strong> (Anous ceruleus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Gray Noddy<\/strong> (Anous albivitta<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Swallow-tailed Gull<\/strong> (Creagrus furcatus<\/em>)<\/p>
Little Gull <\/strong>(Hydrocoloeus minutus<\/em>)<\/p>
Ross\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Rhodostethia rosea<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-legged Kittiwake<\/strong> (Rissa tridactyla<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Red-legged Kittiwake<\/strong> (Rissa brevirostris<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Ivory Gull<\/strong> (Pagophila eburnea<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Sabine\u2019s Gull<\/strong> (Xema sabini<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Saunders\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Saundersilarus saundersi<\/em>)<\/p>
Slender-billed Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus genei<\/em>)<\/p>
Bonaparte\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus philadelphia<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-headed Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus ridibundus<\/em>)<\/p>
Brown-headed Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus<\/em>)<\/p>
Gray-hooded Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus cirrocephalus<\/em>)<\/p>
Gray-headed Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus poiocephalus<\/em>)<\/p>
Hartlaub\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus hartlaubii<\/em>)<\/p>
Red-billed Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus scopulinus<\/em>)<\/p>
Silver Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-billed Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus bulleri<\/em>)<\/p>
Andean Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus serranus<\/em>)<\/p>
Brown-hooded Gull <\/strong>(Chroicocephalus maculipennis<\/em>)<\/p>
Gray Gull <\/strong>(Leucophaeus modestus<\/em>)<\/p>
Dolphin Gull <\/strong>(Leucophaeus scoresbii<\/em>)<\/p>
Laughing Gull <\/strong>(Leucophaeus atricilla<\/em>)<\/p>
Franklin\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Leucophaeus pipixcan<\/em>)<\/p>
Lava Gull <\/strong>(Leucophaeus fuliginosus<\/em>)<\/p>
Pallas\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus<\/em>)<\/p>
Relict Gull <\/strong>(Ichthyaetus relictus<\/em>)<\/p>
Mediterranean Gull <\/strong>(Ichthyaetus melanocephalus<\/em>)<\/p>
Audouin\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Ichthyaetus audouinii<\/em>)<\/p>
White-eyed Gull <\/strong>(Ichthyaetus leucophthalmus<\/em>)<\/p>
Sooty Gull <\/strong>(Ichthyaetus hemprichii<\/em>)<\/p>
Pacific Gull <\/strong>(Larus pacificus<\/em>)<\/p>
Belcher\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Larus belcheri<\/em>)<\/p>
Olrog\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Larus atlanticus<\/em>)<\/p>
Black-tailed Gull <\/strong>(Larus crassirostris<\/em>)<\/p>
Heermann\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Larus heermanni<\/em>)<\/p>
Ring-billed Gull <\/strong>(Larus delawarensis<\/em>)<\/p>
Short-billed Gull <\/strong>(Larus brachyrhynchus<\/em>)<\/p>
Common Gull <\/strong>(Larus canus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cEuropean Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. c. canus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cRussian Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. c. heinei<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cKamchatka Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. c. kamtschatschensis<\/em>)<\/p>
Western Gull <\/strong>(Larus occidentalis<\/em>)<\/p>
Yellow-footed Gull <\/strong>(Larus livens<\/em>)<\/p>
Kelp Gull <\/strong>(Larus dominicanus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cKelp Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. d. dominicanus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cAntarctic Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. d. austrinus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cSubantarctic Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. d. judithae<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cCape Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. d. vetula<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cMadagascan Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. d. melisandae<\/em>)<\/p>
Glaucous Gull <\/strong>(Larus hyperboreus<\/em>)<\/p>
European Herring Gull <\/strong>(Larus argentatus<\/em>)<\/p>
Caspian Gull <\/strong>(Larus cachinnans<\/em>)<\/p>
Lesser Black-backed Gull <\/strong>(Larus fuscus<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cLesser Black-backed Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. f. graellsii<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cBaltic Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. f. fuscus<\/em>)<\/p>
Heuglin\u2019s Gull <\/strong>(Larus heuglini<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cHeuglin\u2019s Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. h. heuglini<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cTaimyr Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. h. taimyrensis<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
\u201cSteppe Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. h. barabensis<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Great Black-backed Gull <\/strong>(Larus marinus<\/em>)<\/p>
Yellow-legged Gull <\/strong>(Larus michahellis<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cAtlantic Yellow-legged Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. m. atlantis<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cCantabrican Yellow-legged Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. m. <\/em>ssp. nova)<\/p>
\u201cMediterranean Yellow-legged Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. m. michahellis<\/em>)<\/p>
Armenian Gull <\/strong>(Larus armenicus<\/em>)<\/p>
California Gull <\/strong>(Larus californicus<\/em>)<\/p>
American Herring Gull <\/strong>(Larus smithsonianus<\/em>)<\/p>
Glaucous-winged Gull <\/strong>(Larus glaucescens<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Iceland Gull <\/strong>(Larus glaucoides<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cThayer\u2019s Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. g. thayeri<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cKumlien\u2019s Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. g. kumlieni<\/em>)<\/p>
\u201cIceland Gull\u201d <\/strong>(L. g. glaucoides<\/em>)<\/p>
Mongolian Gull <\/strong>(Larus mongolicus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Vega Gull <\/strong>(Larus vegae<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>
Slaty-backed Gull <\/strong>(Larus schistisagus<\/em>)<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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References<\/u><\/strong><\/p>
Boyd, J.H., 2021. Taxonomy in Flux: GRUAE II: Charadriiformes. http:\/\/jboyd.net\/Taxo\/List9a.html<\/a>. (Posted October 6, 2021; Accessed February 14, 2022.)<\/p>
Bridge, E.S., A.W. Jones, and A.J. Baker. 2005. A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution<\/em> 35:459-469.<\/p>
\u010cern\u00fd, D., and R. Natale. 2021. Comprehensive taxon sampling and vetted fossils help clarify the time tree of shorebirds (Aves, Charadriiformes). bioR\u03c7iv preprint: http:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.07.15.452585v1<\/a>.<\/p>
Harrison, P. 1983. Seabirds: An Identification Guide<\/em>. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.<\/p>
Howell, S.N.G., and J.L. Dunn. 2007. Gulls of the Americas<\/em>. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.<\/p>
Howell, S.N.G., and K. Zufelt. 2019. Oceanic Birds of the World.<\/em> Princeton University Press.<\/p>
Olsen, K.M., and H. Larsson. 2003. Gulls of North America, Europe, and Asia<\/em>. Princeton University Press.<\/p>
Pratt, H.D. 2020. Species limits and English names in the genus Gygis<\/em> (Laridae). Bulletin of the British Ornithologists\u2019 Club<\/em> 140:195-208.<\/p>
Roberson, D. 2000. Bird Families of the World: Skimmers, Rynchopidae<\/em>, http:\/\/creagrus.home.montereybay.com\/skimmers.html<\/a>. (Posted November 5, 2000. Accessed November 17, 2020.)<\/p>
Roberson, D. 2004. Bird Families of the World: Terns, Sterninae<\/em>, http:\/\/creagrus.home.montereybay.com\/terns.html<\/a>. (Posted October 30, 2004. Accessed November 17, 2020.)<\/p>
Roberson, D. 2008. Bird Families of the World: Gulls, Larinae<\/em>, http:\/\/creagrus.home.montereybay.com\/gulls.html<\/a>. (Posted February 25, 2008. Accessed November 17, 2020.)<\/p>
Roberson, D. 2009. Bird Families of the World: Gulls, Terns & Skimmers, Laridae<\/em>, http:\/\/creagrus.home.montereybay.com\/larids.html<\/a>. (Posted August 30, 2009. Accessed November 17, 2020.)<\/p>
van Dijk, K., S. Kharitonov, H. Vonk, and B. Ebbinge. 2011. Taimyr Gulls: evidence for Pacific winter range, with notes on morphology and breeding. Dutch Birding<\/em> 33:9-21.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t
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Text \u00a9 Russell Fraker \/ February 14, 2022<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Laridae: Gulls, Terns and Skimmers Sabine\u2019s Gull.\u00a0 \u00a9 Byron Stone Gulls and terns are beach-lovers, most of which spend the bulk of their lives within sight of the land-water interface.\u00a0 This tends to put them in persistent contact with humanity, but overall they succeed at coexisting with development.\u00a0 Many gulls are opportunistic scavengers, a niche 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